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Verkäufer: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (33.558) 99.8%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 364801938548 MASSIVSILBER Drei Pence 1890 Münze alt Vintage Queen Victoria antik 3D Retro. 1890 Three Pence Coin Queen Victoria British Threepence Coin from 1890 from the Reign of Queen Victoria Solid 0.925 Silver In Good Condition given it is one hundred years old Starting at its monetary value one Penny...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! Would make an Excellent Charm or Collectible Keepsake Souvenir of the worlds most famous ship
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Victoria

Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882

Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882

Queen of the United Kingdom

Reign 20 June 1837 –

22 January 1901

Coronation 28 June 1838

Predecessor William IV

Successor Edward VII

Empress of India

Reign 1 May 1876 –

22 January 1901

Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877

Predecessor Position established

Successor Edward VII

Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent

24 May 1819

Kensington Palace, London, England

Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81)

Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England

Burial 4 February 1901

Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor

Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

​(m. 1840; died 1861)​

Issue

Victoria, Princess Royal

Edward VII

Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine

Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Princess Helena of the United Kingdom

Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll

Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn

Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany

Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom

House Hanover

Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn

Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld

Religion Protestant[a]

Signature Cursive signature of Queen Victoria

Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days was longer than that of any previous British monarch and is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.

Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.

Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died in 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Birth and family

Victoria's father, Prince Edward

Victoria as a child with her mother, after William Beechey

Victoria, aged four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823

Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niece Princess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter of George, Prince Regent (who would become George IV). Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1]

Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[b] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother, the Prince Regent.[2]

At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821.[4]

Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6]

Heir presumptive

Portrait with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833

Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13]

Victoria's sketch of herself

Self-portrait, 1835

In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22]

By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28]

Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31]

Accession

Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria

Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Howley. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887

Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[c] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33]

Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34]

Victoria wears her crown and holds a sceptre.

Coronation portrait by George Hayter

At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39]

At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48]

In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50]

Marriage

See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria

Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room

Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter

Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54]

Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:

I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56]

Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59]

Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840

During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857).

The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68]

Years with Albert

Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843

On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72]

Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73]

Victoria cuddling a child next to her

Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, Victoria, Princess Royal, c. 1845[74]

In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82]

By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83]

Victoria's British prime ministers

Year Prime Minister (party)

1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig)

1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative)

1846 Lord John Russell (W)

1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C)

1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite)

1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal)

1858 Earl of Derby (C)

1859 Viscount Palmerston (L)

1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L) 

1866 Earl of Derby (C)

1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C)

1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L)

1874 Benj. Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C)  

1880 William Gladstone (L)

1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C)

1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L)

1886 (July) Marquess of Salisbury (C)

1892 William Gladstone (L)

1894 Earl of Rosebery (L)

1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C)

See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria

for details of her British and overseas premiers

Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91]

Portrait by Herbert Smith, 1848

Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby.

Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her

Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena.

In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97]

In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98]

Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years.[102]

Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859

On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[103] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[104] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[105] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[106]

Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[107] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[108] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[109] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor.

Widowhood

Photograph by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860

In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[110] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[111] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[112] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[113] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[114] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[115]

By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[116] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[117] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[118] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[119] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[120] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[121]

Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[122] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[123] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[124]

Victoria on a horse

Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson

Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[125] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[126] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[127]

Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[128] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[129] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[130] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[131] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[132] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[133]

In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[134] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[135] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[136] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[137] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[138] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[139] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[140]

On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[141] and a birching.[142] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[143]

Empress

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[144] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[145] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[146] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[146]

Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[147]

In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[148] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[149] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[150] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[151]

On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[152] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[153]

Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[154] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[155] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[156] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[157] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[158] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[159]

Later years

Victorian farthing, 1884

On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[160] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[161] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[162] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[163]

On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[164] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[165] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[166] The manuscript was destroyed.[167] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[168] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[169] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[170]

Extent of the British Empire in 1898

Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[171] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[172] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[173] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[174] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again.

Golden Jubilee

The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk

Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim

In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[175] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[176] Two days later on 23 June,[177] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[178][179][180] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[181] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[182] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[183] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[184]

Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[185]

Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[186] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[187] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[188]

Diamond Jubilee

Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress

Victoria's official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey

On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[189] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[190] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[191] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[192]

The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[193]

Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900

Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[194] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[195]

Death and succession

Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899

In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[196]

Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[197] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[198] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[199] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[200] Her eldest son, Albert Edward, succeeded her as Edward VII. Edward and his nephew Wilhelm II were at Victoria's deathbed.[201] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[202]

Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral

In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[203] On 25 January, her sons Edward and Arthur and her grandson Wilhelm helped lift her body into the coffin.[204] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[205] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][206] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[207]

With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[208] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Legacy

See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria

Victoria smiling

Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][209] and she denied doing so.[210] Her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[211]

According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[212] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[213] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[214] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[215] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[216]

Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[217] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[218] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][219] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[220] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[221] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[222]

Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side

The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected a decade after her death.

Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[223] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[224] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[225]

Descendants and haemophilia

Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[226] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Charles III of the United Kingdom; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain.

The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India

Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[227] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[228] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[229] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[230] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[231]

Titles, styles, honours, and arms

Titles and styles

At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232]

Honours

British honours

Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233]

Founder of the Victoria Cross 5 February 1856[234]

Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[235]

Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[236]

Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[237]

Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[238]

Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[239]

Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[240]

Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[241]

Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[242]

Foreign honours

Spain:

Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[243]

Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[244]

Portugal:

Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[245]

Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa[244]

Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[246]

France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[247]

Mexico/Mexican Empire:

Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[248]

Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of San Carlos, 1866[249]

Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[250]

Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[251]

Persia:[252]

Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873

Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873

Siam:

Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[253]

Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[254]

Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[255]

Serbia:[256][257]

Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882

Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883

Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897

Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[258]

Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[259]

Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[260]

Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[261]

Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[262]

Arms

As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne.

Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland.

Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg

Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg

Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland)

Family

Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.

Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria.

Issue

See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and of King Christian IX

Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][263]

Victoria,

the Princess Royal 1840

Nov. 21 1901

August 5 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888);

4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece)

Edward VII 1841

Nov. 9 1910

May 6 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925);

3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway)

Princess Alice 1843

April 25 1878

Dec. 14 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892);

2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia)

Alfred,

Duke of Saxe-Coburg

and Gotha 1844

August 6 1900

July 31 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920);

2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania)

Princess Helena 1846

May 25 1923

June 9 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917);

4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters

Princess Louise 1848

March 18 1939

Dec.3 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914);

no issue

Prince Arthur,

Duke of Connaught

and Strathearn 1850

May 1 1942

Jan. 16 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917);

1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden)

Prince Leopold,

Duke of Albany 1853

April 7 1884

March 28 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922);

1 son, 1 daughter

Princess Beatrice 1857

April 14 1944

Oct. 26 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896);

3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain)

Ancestry

Ancestors of Queen Victoria[264]

Family tree

  Red borders indicate British monarchs

    Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs

Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V

Notes

 As monarch, Victoria was Supreme Governor of the Church of England. She was also aligned with the Church of Scotland.

 Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh).

 Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581.

References

Citations

 Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29

 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35

 Longford, p. 24

 Worsley, p. 41.

 Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81

 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126

 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25

 Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers.

 Hibbert, pp. 27–28; Waller, pp. 341–342; Woodham-Smith, pp. 63–65

 Hibbert, pp. 32–33; Longford, pp. 38–39, 55; Marshall, p. 19

 Waller, pp. 338–341; Woodham-Smith, pp. 68–69, 91

 Hibbert, p. 18; Longford, p. 31; Woodham-Smith, pp. 74–75

 Longford, p. 31; Woodham-Smith, p. 75

 Hibbert, pp. 34–35

 Hibbert, pp. 35–39; Woodham-Smith, pp. 88–89, 102

 Hibbert, p. 36; Woodham-Smith, pp. 89–90

 Hibbert, pp. 35–40; Woodham-Smith, pp. 92, 102

 Hibbert, pp. 38–39; Longford, p. 47; Woodham-Smith, pp. 101–102

 Hibbert, p. 42; Woodham-Smith, p. 105

 Hibbert, p. 42; Longford, pp. 47–48; Marshall, p. 21

 Hibbert, pp. 42, 50; Woodham-Smith, p. 135

 Marshall, p. 46; St Aubyn, p. 67; Waller, p. 353

 Longford, pp. 29, 51; Waller, p. 363; Weintraub, pp. 43–49

 Longford, p. 51; Weintraub, pp. 43–49

 Longford, pp. 51–52; St Aubyn, p. 43; Weintraub, pp. 43–49; Woodham-Smith, p. 117

 Weintraub, pp. 43–49

 Victoria quoted in Marshall, p. 27 and Weintraub, p. 49

 Victoria quoted in Hibbert, p. 99; St Aubyn, p. 43; Weintraub, p. 49 and Woodham-Smith, p. 119

 Victoria's journal, October 1835, quoted in St Aubyn, p. 36 and Woodham-Smith, p. 104

 Hibbert, p. 102; Marshall, p. 60; Waller, p. 363; Weintraub, p. 51; Woodham-Smith, p. 122

 Waller, pp. 363–364; Weintraub, pp. 53, 58, 64, and 65

 St Aubyn, pp. 55–57; Woodham-Smith, p. 138

 Woodham-Smith, p. 140

 Packard, pp. 14–15

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Further reading

Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4

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Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press

Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto

Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7

Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press

Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876

Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3

James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630

Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire

Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8

Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin

Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777

Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2

Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0

External links

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Queen Victoria

House of Hanover

Cadet branch of the House of Welf

Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901

Regnal titles

Preceded by

William IV

Queen of the United Kingdom

20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by

Edward VII

Vacant

Title last held by

Bahadur Shah II

as Mughal emperor Empress of India

1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901

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Queen Victoria

Events

Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball

Reign

Bedchamber crisisPrime ministersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsDeath and state funeral Mausoleum

Family

Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, German Empress (daughter)Edward VII (son)Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)DescendantsRoyal descendants

Early life

Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy

Honours

PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant)

Depictions

Film

Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020)

Television

Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019)

Stage

Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972)

Statues and

memorials

List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch

Poetry

"The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897)

Songs

VictoriaChoral Songs

Stamps

British

Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue

Colonial

Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps

Related

Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond CrownVictoriana

← William IVEdward VII →

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English, Scottish and British monarchs

Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603

Æthelstan (from 927)Edmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnLouisHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I

Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI

Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603

James I and VICharles IThe Protectorate Oliver CromwellRichard CromwellCharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne

British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707

AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III

Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.

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British princesses

The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used.

1st generation

Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia

2nd generation

Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway

3rd generation

Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway

4th generation

Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester

5th generation

Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck

6th generation

Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhineHelena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllBeatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover

7th generation

Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenLady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthloneMarie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover

8th generation

Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodAlexandra, Princess Arthur of Connaught and Duchess of FifeMaud Carnegie, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece

9th generation

Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy

10th generation

Anne, Princess Royal

11th generation

Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor

12th generation

Princess Charlotte of WalesPrincess Lilibet of Sussex

Princesses whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics.

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Hanoverian princesses by birth

Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III.

1st generation

Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia

2nd generation

Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck

3rd generation

Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie

4th generation

Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

5th generation

Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes

7th generation

Princess Alexandra

Authority control Edit this at Wikidata

International

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People

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Other

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Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of AustraliaQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsBritish royal memoiristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo

Like the sixpence, the threepenny piece first appeared as a silver coin in 1551. But in competition with the half-groat or twopenny piece, which had already been in circulation for 200 years, it led a precarious existence and was unable to establish itself firmly. Struck during the reign of Elizabeth I and then again during the Civil War, minting was resumed following the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660. By the early part of the 18th century the coin only really survived as a part of the small annual issues of Maundy Money.

Its role changed in 1845, when it began to be issued in large numbers for general circulation. This further attempt to popularise the coin proved successful, no doubt in part because of the large and inconvenient size of the copper coinage.

During the 20th century changing habits and customs again rendered the threepenny piece unpopular, and to meet criticism of its small size a 12-sided nickel-brass piece of the same denomination but weighing almost five times as much as its silver counterpart was introduced in 1937. Its dumpiness and unusual shape aroused mixed feelings but in 1941 it had almost completely superseded its silver rival and was even being acclaimed by bus conductors and others as the easiest coin to recognise during the blackouts of the Second World War.

Twelve-sided threepenny pieces were demonetised at the end of the decimal transitional period in 1971.

A true antique (Latin: antiquus; 'old', 'ancient') is an item perceived as having value because of its aesthetic or historical significance, and often defined as at least 100 years old (or some other limit), although the term is often used loosely to describe any object that is old.[1] An antique is usually an item that is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection, and/or other unique features. It is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human history. Vintage and collectible are used to describe items that are old, but do not meet the 100-year criterion.[2]

Antiques are usually objects of the decorative arts that show some degree of craftsmanship, collectability, or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at antiques shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions, and other venues, or estate inherited. Antiques dealers often belong to national trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA, a confederation of art and antique associations across 21 countries that represents 5,000 dealers.

Definition

The common definition of antique is a collectible object such as a piece of furniture or work of art that has an enhanced value because of its considerable age, but it varies depending on the item, its source, the year of its creation etc. The customary definition of antique requires that an item should be at least 100 years old and in original condition[citation needed]. (Motor vehicles are an exception to this rule, with some definitions requiring an automobile to be as little as 25 years old to qualify as an antique.[3])

In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as, "...works of art (except rugs and carpets made after the year 1700), collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, works in bronze, marble, terra cotta, parian, pottery, or porcelain, artistic antiquities and objects of ornamental character or educational value which shall have been produced prior to the year 1830."[citation needed] 1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects.

In 1979, the British art critic Edward Lucie-Smith wrote that "Antique-dealers ... sometimes insist that nothing is antique which was made after 1830, although the barrier has been broken down in recent years by the enthusiasm of collectors for Art Nouveau and Art Deco.[4]

The alternative term, antiquities, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past.

China

Traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a 'chop', placed there by an owner.[citation needed] Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops. The pre-revolution Chinese government[clarification needed] tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique. The government of the People's Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique.[clarification needed] As of the Cultural Revolution and China's opening trade to other countries, the government has tried to protect the definition of a Chinese antique.[clarification needed]

Antiquing

A vintage travel gear seller at Marché Dauphine, Saint-Ouen, Paris

"Antiquing" redirects here. For the decorative arts technique, see Distressing.

Antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for personal use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, and international auction houses.

Note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or using the antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques. Would-be antique collectors who are unaware of the differences may find themselves paying a high amount of money for something that would have little value if re-sold.

Furniture

Furniture antiques from the Chinese Liao dynasty

Main article: Antique furniture

Antique furniture is a popular area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use antique furniture pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that the value of these items will remain same or appreciate. This is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase.

Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc. The most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood. Chinese antique furniture is often made with elm, a wood common to many regions in Asia. Each wood has a distinctive grain and color. Many modern pieces of furniture use laminate or wood veneer to achieve the same effect. There are a number of different styles of antique furniture depending on when and where it was made. Some examples of stylistic periods are: Arts & Crafts, Georgian, Regency, and Victorian.

An important part of some antique furniture is its hardware fittings, the style of which varies from one period to another. For example, Victorian era hardware is different from other period hardware and is perceived to be aesthetically defined; this is the reason for its popularity.[5]

See also

American Pickers

Antiquarian book trade in the United States

Antique tool

Antiques restoration

Antiques Roadshow

Authentication

Del Mar Antique Show

Dolly Johnson Antique and Art Show

List of antiques experts

Primitive decorating, a style of decorating using antiques

Relic

The San Francisco Fall Antiques Show

Vintage (design)

References

 "Definition of ANTIQUE". www.merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

 "The difference between antique, vintage, and collectible item. - Antique HQ". www.antique-hq.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.

 "About: A concise history of AACA in the beginning". Antique Automobile Club of America. US. Retrieved 15 June 2014.

 Lucie-Smith, Edward, A Concise History of Furniture, p. 13, 1979, Thames & Hudson, World of Art series

 Decorative Hardware of the Victorian Era - An American Perspective, DHI Magazine, 11 September 2021

Victorian era

1837–1901

Queen Victoria - Winterhalter 1859.jpg

Queen Victoria in 1859 by Winterhalter

Monarch(s) Victoria

Leader(s)

The Viscount Melbourne

Sir Robert Peel

Lord John Russell

The Earl of Derby

The Earl of Aberdeen

The Viscount Palmerston

Benjamin Disraeli

William Ewart Gladstone

The Marquess of Salisbury

The Earl of Rosebery

← Preceded by

Georgian era Followed by →

Edwardian era

Part of a series on the

History of the United Kingdom

BRITANNIA prout divisa fuit temporibus ANGLO-SAXONUM, praesertim durante illorum HEPTARCHIA

Timeline

Topics

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Periods in English history

 

Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 AD

British Iron Age c. 800 BC

Roman Britain c. 43–410

Sub-Roman Britain c. 400s – late 500s

Anglo-Saxon c. 500–1066

Norman 1066–1154

Plantagenet 1154–1485

Tudor 1485–1603

Elizabethan 1558–1603

Stuart 1603–1714

Jacobean 1603–1625

Caroline 1625–1649

(Interregnum) 1649–1660

Restoration 1660–1714

Georgian era 1714–1837

Regency era 1811–1820

Victorian era 1837–1901

Edwardian era 1901–1914

First World War 1914–1918

Interwar Britain 1919–1939

Second World War 1939–1945

Postwar Britain (political) 1945–1979

Postwar Britain (social) 1945–1979

See also

Political history (1979–present)

Social history (1979–present)

Timeline

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Part of a series on the

History of Scotland

Arms of Scotland

SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus

Eras

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During the Roman Empire 69–384

Middle Ages

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Commonwealth (1652–1660)

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In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of Continental Europe.

There was a strong religious drive for higher moral standards led by the nonconformist churches, such as the Methodists and the evangelical wing of the established Church of England. Ideologically, the Victorian era witnessed resistance to the rationalism that defined the Georgian period, and an increasing turn towards romanticism and even mysticism in religion, social values, and arts.[1] This era saw a staggering amount of technological innovations that proved key to Britain's power and prosperity.[2][3] Doctors started moving away from tradition and mysticism towards a science-based approach; medicine advanced thanks to the adoption of the germ theory of disease and pioneering research in epidemiology.[4]

Domestically, the political agenda was increasingly liberal, with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual political reform, improved social reform, and the widening of the franchise. There were unprecedented demographic changes: the population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901,[5] and Scotland's population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901.[6] However, Ireland's population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[7] Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrated from Great Britain, mostly to the United States, as well as to imperial outposts in Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.[8] Thanks to educational reforms, the British population not only approached universal literacy towards the end of the era but also became increasingly well-educated; the market for reading materials of all kinds boomed.[9][10][11]

Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by antagonism with Russia, including the Crimean War and the Great Game. A Pax Britannica of peaceful trade was maintained by the country's naval and industrial supremacy. Britain embarked on global imperial expansion, particularly in Asia and Africa, which made the British Empire the largest empire in history. National self-confidence peaked.[12][13] Britain granted political autonomy to the more advanced colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.[14] Apart from the Crimean War, Britain was not involved in any armed conflict with another major power.[14][15]

The two main political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end, the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Irish Home Rule played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement in Ireland.

Terminology and periodisation

See also: Periodisation

In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII. Her reign lasted for 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.[16] The era has also been understood in a more extensive sense as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales. Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label "Victorian", though there have also been defences of it.[17]

Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".[18] He distinguished early Victorianism – the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850[19] – and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism,[20] from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterized by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery, and complacency[21] – what G. M. Trevelyan similarly called the "mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity".[22]

Political and diplomatic history

Main articles: Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Domestically, Britain liberalised and gradually evolved into a democracy. The Reform Act[note 1], which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832.[23] The franchise was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867.[24] Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised.[25] From 1845 to 1852, the Great Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.[26] The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this.[27] Across the British Empire reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions, the end of transportation of convicts to Australia, loosening restrictions on colonial trade, and introducing responsible (i.e semi-autonomous) government.[15][14]

The defence of Rorke's Drift during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879

The period from 1815 to 1914 is known as the Pax Britannia. A period of relatively peaceful relations between the world's Great Powers. This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others.[15] The only case of the empire participating in a war against another major power is the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856.[28][15] Their were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British empire.[15][14] Britain participated in wars against minor powers.[29][15][30][14][15] It also took part in the diplomatic struggles of the Great Game[29] and the Scramble for Africa.[15][14]

In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. The couple had nine children who themselves married into various royal families and the queen thus became known as the "grandmother of Europe".[31][25] In 1861, Prince Albert died.[29] Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.[25] In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, the Queen began to return to public life.[31] In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire.[31] Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901.[31]

Society and culture

Main article: Society and culture of the Victorian era

Recreation of a Victorian Parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire

The era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as the dominant class in British society.[32][33] A distinctive middle class lifestyle developed which reflected on what was valued by society as a whole.[32][34] Increased importance was placed on the value of the family and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity.[35][36] A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace which had often not been the case before.[34] The home was seen as a private environment,[34] where housewives provided their husbands with a rest-bite from the troubles of the outside world.[35] Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and rely on men as breadwinners.[37][38] Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life and a feminist movement developed.[38][39] Whilst parental authority was seen as important children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time.[40]

Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)

The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour which included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self criticism.[33][41] As well as personal improvement, importance was given to social reform.[42] Utilitarianism was another philosophy which saw itself as based on science rather than morality, but also placed emphasis on social progress.[43][44] An alliance formed between these two ideological strands.[45] The causes the reformers emphasised included improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality and political reform in order to establish a democracy.[46] The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (a part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party.[47] This continued up until the First World War.[48] The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland.[49]

Religion was politically controversial during this era with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of the Church of England.[50] Nonconformists, who comprised about half of church attendees in 1851,[51] gradually had the legal discrimination which had been established against them outside of Scotland removed.[52][53][54][55] Legal restrictions on Catholics were also largely removed. The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland.[50] Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education during this time period.[56] Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal[57]) gained appeal among academics in the south.[58] Historians refer to a "Victorian Crisis of Faith" as a period where religious views had to readjust to suit new scientific knowledge and criticism of the bible.[59]

Leisure hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy

Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly nearing universal levels by the end of the century.[60][61] Private education for wealthier children, both boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century.[60] A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period.[11][62][63][16][64][11][65][66] Other popular forms of entertainment included brass bands,[67] circuses,[68] "spectacles" (alleged paranormal activities),[69] amateur nature collecting,[70][71] gentlemen's clubs for wealthier men,[72] and seaside holidays for the middle class.[73] Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era.[74] They became important to male identity.[75] Popular sports of the period included cricket,[76] cycling, croquet, horse-riding, and many water activities.[77] Opportunities for leisure increased as restrictions were placed on maximum working hours, wages increased and routine annual leave became increasingly common.[78][79]

Economy, industry, and trade

Further information: Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era; Industrial revolution; and Second industrial revolution

Crew stood with a railway engine (1873)

Prior to the industrial revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with a wide range of new inventions being developed.[2] This technological advancement led to Great Britain becoming the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time.[3] Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's "Golden Years",[80][81] with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery along with exports to the empire and elsewhere.[82] The positive economic conditions, as well as a fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers led to relative social stability.[82][83] Government involvement in the economy was limited.[83] It wasn't until the post-World War II period around a century later that the country experienced substantial economic growth again.[81] However, whilst industry was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre.[83] Historian Llewellyn Woodward concluded that whilst the quality of life was improving by the "golden years" conditions and housing for the working classes "were still a disgrace to an age of plenty."[84] Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century; real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 percent higher in 1901, compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831, to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.[85]

Slum area in Glasgow (1871)

19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution.[85] The rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London.[86][87] Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.[88] People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one which devastated Ireland in the 1840s.[89][90][91] Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation that:[92]

Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room

This illustration of a child drawer (a type of hurrier) pulling a coal tub was originally published in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report.

The early Victorian era before the reforms of the 1840s became notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps.[93][94] The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low wages.[92] Reformers wanted the children in school: in 1840 only about 20 percent of the children in London had any schooling.[95] By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school).[60] From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education though these were often difficult to enforce in practise.[96] It was only in the 1870s and 1880s that children began to be compelled into school.[60]

Knowledge and public health

Main articles: Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era and Demographics of the Victorian era

Michael Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution (c.1855)

The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy but it look a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal society began to solely admit professionals from 1847 onwards. Biologist Thomas Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living through being a scientist alone.[58] The Victorians respected science seeing it as something which could improve society and being a scientist was a prestigious occupation.[97][98][58] Significant advancements took place in various fields of research including statistics,[99] elasticity,[100] refrigeration,[101] natural history,[102] electricity[103] and logic.[104]

Britain was advanced in engineering and technology.[105][106] The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system. This system which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.[107] Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.[108] The railways were important economically in the Victorian era allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around stimulating trade and industry.[109] Britain's engineers were contracted around the world to build railways.[105][106] Financing railways around the world became a speciality of London's financiers. They maintained an ownership share in these railways which were ultimately largely liquidated in the early part of the First World War to contribute to the war effort.[110][111]

Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (circa 1850s or 60s)

Improvements were made over time to housing along with the management of sewage and water.[112][113] A gas network for lighting and heating was introduced in the 1880s.[114] Medicine advanced rapidly during the 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time.[115] Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew.[4] In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.[116] Britain experienced rapid population growth during the Victorian era.[117] The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century.[118][119] Various factors are considered contributary to this including rising fertility rate,[120] falling infant mortality,[121] the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during the 19th century for the first time in history,[122] improved nutrition,[123] and a lower overall mortality rate.[124] The population of Ireland shrank significantly mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.[125]

Moral standards

See also: Victorian morality and Women in the Victorian era

If we lift our skirts they level their eye-glasses at our ankles (1854), cartoon suggesting that men saw women lifting their dresses as a titillating opportunity to see some of their body shape.

Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century with good manners and self restraint becoming much more common.[126] Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as the major conflicts with France Britain participated in during the early 19th century meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on the war effort and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement.[127] Their is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society.[128][129] For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples co-habited before marriage.[130]

Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals.[131][132][133] Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers on the 1830s and 1840s.[134][135] Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection.[136] Contrary to popular conception, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation.[137] The development of police forces led to a rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century.[138] Male sexuality became a favorite subject of study by medical researchers.[139] All male homosexual acts were made illegal for the first time.[140] At a time when there were relatively few job options for women, some particularly poorer women without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves.[141] Estimates vary, but in his landmark study, Prostitution, William Acton reported an estimation of 8,600 prostitutes in London alone in 1857.[142] Whilst this caused a moral panic in some sections of public life , their were some dissenting voices at the time. Women suspected of prostitution were for a period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for STDs and detainment if they were found to be infected.[141]

See also

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Notes

 A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately.

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 F. Barry Smith, "Labouchere's amendment to the Criminal Law Amendment bill." Australian Historical Studies 17.67 (1976): 165–173.

 Walkowitz, Judith (1980). Prostitution and Victorian Society. Cambridge University Press.

 Acton, William (1857). Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects (Reprint of the Second Edition with new biographical note ed.). London: Frank Cass (published 1972). ISBN 0-7146-2414-4.

Further reading

General

Adams, James Eli, ed. Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era (4 Vol. 2004), short essays on a wide range of topics by experts

Bailey, Peter. Leisure and class in Victorian England: Rational recreation and the contest for control, 1830–1885 (Routledge, 2014).

Best, Geoffrey. Mid-Victorian Britain, 1851-1875 (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971)

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830-1902 (1970) online, survey plus primary documents

Briggs, Asa. The Age of Improvement 1783–1867 (1979), Wide-ranging older survey emphasizing the reforms. online

Cevasco, G. A. ed. The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of British Literature, Art, and Culture (1993) 736pp; short articles by experts

Chadwick, Owen. The Victorian Church (2 vol 1966), covers all denominations online

Clark, G. Kitson The making of Victorian England (1963). online

Ensor, R. C. K. England, 1870–1914 (1936) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49856 online] influential scholarly survey

Gregg, Pauline. A Social and Economic History of Britain: 1760–1950 (1950) online

Harrison, J.F.C. Early Victorian Britain 1832–1851 (Fontana, 1979).

Harrison, J.F.C. Late Victorian Britain 1875–1901 (Routledge, 2013).

Heffer, Simon. High Minds: The Victorians and the Birth of Modern Britain (2014), survey to 1880.

Heffer, Simon. The Age of Decadence: Britain 1880 to 1914 (2017), wide-ranging scholarly survey.

Heilmann, Ann, and Mark Llewellyn, eds. Neo-Victorianism: The Victorians in the Twenty-First Century, 1999–2009 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 323 pages; looks at recent literary & cinematic, interest in the Victorian era, including magic, sexuality, theme parks, and the postcolonial

Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783–1846 (New Oxford History of England. 2006); in-depth scholarly survey, 784pp.

Hobsbawm, Eric (1997). The Age of Capital, 1848–1875. London: Abacus.

McCord, Norman and Bill Purdue. British History, 1815–1914 (2nd ed. 2007), 612 pp online, university textbook

Paul, Herbert. History of Modern England, 1904-6 (5 vols) online free

Perkin, Harold. The Origins of Modern English Society: 1780–1880 (1969) online

Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886 (New Oxford History of England) (2000), comprehensive scholarly history excerpt and text search

Roberts, Clayton and David F. Roberts. A History of England, Volume 2: 1688 to the present (2013) university textbook; 1985 edition online

Somervell, D. C. English thought in the nineteenth century (1929) online

Steinbach, Susie L. Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain (2012) excerpt and text search

Swisher, Clarice, ed. Victorian England (2000) 20 excerpts from leading primary and secondary sources regarding literary, cultural, technical, political, and social themes. online free

Daily life and culture

Aston, Jennifer, Amanda Capern, and Briony McDonagh. "More than bricks and mortar: female property ownership as economic strategy in mid-nineteenth-century urban England." Urban History 46.4 (2019): 695–721. online

Flanders, Judith. Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5.

Houghton, Walter E. (1957). The Victorian frame of mind, 1830–1870. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-300-00122-8.

May, Trevor (1994). The Victorian Schoolroom. Great Britain: Shire Publications. pp. 3, 29.

Mitchell, Sally. Daily Life in Victorian England. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4.

O'Gorman, Francis, ed. The Cambridge companion to Victorian culture (2010)

Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian culture and society: the essential glossary (2003).

Thompson, F. M. L. Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (1988) Strong on family, marriage, childhood, houses, and play.

Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016).

Wilson, A. N. The Victorians. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7

Young, Gerard Mackworth, ed. Early Victorian England 1830-1865 (2 vol 1934) scholarly surveys of cultural history. vol 2 online

Literature

Altick, Richard Daniel. Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature. (1974) online free

Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature (2015).

Flint, Kay. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014).

Horsman, Alan. The Victorian Novel (Oxford History of English Literature, 1991)

Politics

Aydelotte, William O. “Parties and Issues in Early Victorian England.” Journal of British Studies, 5#2 1966, pp. 95–114. online

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970), contains a short narrative history and 147 "Selected documents" on pp 195–504.

Boyd, Kelly and Rohan McWilliam, eds. The Victorian Studies Reader (2007) 467pp; articles and excerpts by scholars excerpts and text search

Bright, J. Franck. A History of England. Period 4: Growth of Democracy: Victoria 1837–1880 (1902) online 608pp; highly detailed older political narrative

A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction, Victoria, 1880‒1901 (1904) online

Brock, M. G. "Politics at the Accession of Queen Victoria" History Today (1953) 3#5 pp 329–338 online.

Brown, David, Robert Crowcroft, and Gordon Pentland, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Modern British Political History, 1800–2000 (2018) excerpt

Burton, Antoinette, ed. Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6

Marriott, J. A. R. England Since Waterloo (1913); focus on politics and diplomacy; online

Martin, Howard.Britain in the 19th Century (Challenging History series, 2000) 409pp; textbook; emphasizing politics, diplomacy and use of primary sources

Trevelyan, G. M. British History in the Nineteenth Century and After (1782–1901) (1922). online very well written scholarly survey

Walpole, Spencer. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (6 vol. 1878–86), very well written political narrative to 1855; online

Walpole, Spencer. History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904–1908) covers 1856–1880; online

Woodward, E. L. The Age of Reform: 1815–1870 (1954) comprehensive survey online

Young, G. M. "Mid-Victorianism" History Today (1951) 1#1 pp 11–17, online.

Crime and punishment

Auerbach, Sascha (2015). "'Beyond the pale of mercy': Victorian penal culture, police court missionaries, and the origins of probation in England" (PDF). Law and History Review. 33 (3): 621–663. doi:10.1017/S0738248015000280. S2CID 142101025.

Bailey, Victor. Policing and punishment in nineteenth century Britain (2015).

Churchill, David. Crime Control and Everyday Life in the Victorian City (Oxford UP, 2018)

Emsley, Clive. Crime and society in England: 1750–1900 (2013).

Emsley, Clive. "Crime in 19th Century Britain." History Today 38 (1988): 40+

Emsley, Clive. The English Police: A Political and Social History (2nd ed. 1996) also published as The Great British Bobby: A History of British Policing from the 18th Century to the Present (2010)excerpt

Fox, Lionel W. (1998). The English Prison and Borstal Systems. p. 46. ISBN 9780415177382.

Gatrell, V. A. C. "Crime, authority and the policeman-state." in E.M.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge social history of Britain 1750-1950: Volume 3 (1990). 3:243-310

Hay, Douglas. "Crime and justice in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century England." Crime and Justice 2 (1980): 45–84. online

Kilday, Anne-Marie. "Women and crime." Women's History, Britain 1700–1850 ed. Hannah Barker and Elaine Chalus, (Routledge, 2004) pp. 186–205.

May, Margaret. "Innocence and experience: the evolution of the concept of juvenile delinquency in the mid-nineteenth century." Victorian Studies 17.1 (1973): 7–29. online

Radzinowicz, Leon. A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 (5 vol. 1948–1976)

Radzinowicz, Leon and Roger Hood The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian England (1990)

Shore, Heather (2000). "The Idea of Juvenile Crime in 19th Century England". History Today. 50 (6): 21–27.

Shore, Heather. "Crime, policing and punishment." in Chris Williams, ed., A companion to nineteenth-century Britain (2007): 381–395. excerpt

Storch, R. D. (1980). "Crime And Justice in 19th-Century England". History Today. 30: 32–37.

Taylor, James (2018). "White-collar crime and the law in nineteenth-century Britain" (PDF). Business History. 60 (3): 343–360. doi:10.1080/00076791.2017.1339691. S2CID 157785396.

Tobias, J. J. Crime and Industrial Society in the Nineteenth Century (1967) .

Tobias, J.J. ed, Nineteenth-century crime: prevention and punishment (1972) primary sources.

Taylor, Howard. "Rationing crime: the political economy of criminal statistics since the 1850s." Economic history review (1998) 51#3 569–590. online

Historiography

Burton, Antoinette (2012). "Victorian History: Some Experiments with Syllabi". Victorian Studies. 54 (2): 305–311. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.54.2.305. S2CID 142936859.

Elton, G. R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online

Gooch, Brison D. (1973). "Recent Literature on Queen Victoria's Little Wars". Victorian Studies. 17 (2): 217–224. JSTOR 3826186.

Goodlad, Lauren M. E. (2000). "'A Middle Class Cut into Two': Historiography and Victorian National Character". ELH. 67 (1): 143–178. doi:10.1353/elh.2000.0003. S2CID 161748511.

Homans, Margaret, and Adrienne Munich, eds. Remaking Queen Victoria (Cambridge University Press, 1997)

Kent, Christopher (1996). "Victorian social history: post-Thompson, post-Foucault, postmodern". Victorian Studies. 1996 (1): 97–133. JSTOR 3828799.

Mays, Kelly J (2011). "Looking backward, looking forward: the Victorians in the rear-view mirror of future history". Victorian Studies. 53 (3): 445–456. doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.53.3.445. S2CID 143253052.

Moore, D. C. "In Search of a New Past: 1820 – 1870," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 255–298

Parry, J. P. (1983). "The State of Victorian Political History". Historical Journal. 26 (2): 469–484. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00024201. JSTOR 2638778. S2CID 162264240.

Sandiford, Keith A. P. (1981). "The Victorians at play: Problems in historiographical methodology". Journal of Social History. 1981 (2): 271–288. doi:10.1353/jsh/15.2.271. JSTOR 3787112.

Stansky, Peter. "British History: 1870 – 1914," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp. 299–326

Taylor, Miles (2020). "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria". Journal of British Studies. 59 (1): 121–135. doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245. S2CID 213433777.

Vernon, James (2005). "Historians and the Victorian Studies Question". Victorian Studies. 47 (2): 272–79. doi:10.2979/VIC.2005.47.2.272. S2CID 145307328.

Webb, R. K. Modern England: from the 18th century to the present (1968) online widely recommended university textbook

Primary sources

Black, E.C. ed. British politics in the nineteenth century (1969) online

Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970.) pp 195–504 are 147 selected documents

Hicks, Geoff, et al. eds. Documents on Conservative Foreign Policy, 1852–1878 (2013), 550 documents excerpt

Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938), 608pp of primary sources online

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Victorian era.

Free online books on the Victorian era

Victorians British Library website exploring the Victorian period.

Victorians.co.uk Victorian Era History Guide.

Mostly-Victorian.com A collection of primary-source documents drawn from Victorian periodicals.

The Victorian Dictionary

The Victorian Web

Victorians British Library history resources about the Victorian era, featuring collection material and text by Liza Picard.

Timelines: Sources from history – British Library interactive

Collection: "Victorian Studies" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

"What Happened During the Victorian Era?" resources from the Royal Museums Greenwich

Victorian mate choice, by evolutionary psychologist Geoffrey Miller

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1890

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1890 in various calendars

Gregorian calendar 1890

MDCCCXC

Ab urbe condita 2643

Armenian calendar 1339

ԹՎ ՌՅԼԹ

Assyrian calendar 6640

Baháʼí calendar 46–47

Balinese saka calendar 1811–1812

Bengali calendar 1297

Berber calendar 2840

British Regnal year 53 Vict. 1 – 54 Vict. 1

Buddhist calendar 2434

Burmese calendar 1252

Byzantine calendar 7398–7399

Chinese calendar 己丑年 (Earth Ox)

4586 or 4526

    — to —

庚寅年 (Metal Tiger)

4587 or 4527

Coptic calendar 1606–1607

Discordian calendar 3056

Ethiopian calendar 1882–1883

Hebrew calendar 5650–5651

Hindu calendars

 - Vikram Samvat 1946–1947

 - Shaka Samvat 1811–1812

 - Kali Yuga 4990–4991

Holocene calendar 11890

Igbo calendar 890–891

Iranian calendar 1268–1269

Islamic calendar 1307–1308

Japanese calendar Meiji 23

(明治23年)

Javanese calendar 1819–1820

Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 days

Korean calendar 4223

Minguo calendar 22 before ROC

民前22年

Nanakshahi calendar 422

Thai solar calendar 2432–2433

Tibetan calendar 阴土牛年

(female Earth-Ox)

2016 or 1635 or 863

    — to —

阳金虎年

(male Iron-Tiger)

2017 or 1636 or 864

Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1890.

1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1890th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 890th year of the 2nd millennium, the 90th year of the 19th century, and the 1st year of the 1890s decade. As of the start of 1890, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

January 25: Nellie Bly, 1890

January–March

January 1

The Kingdom of Italy establishes Eritrea as its colony in the Horn of Africa.

In Michigan, the wooden steamer Mackinaw burns in a fire on the Black River.[1]

January 2

The steamship Persia is wrecked off Corsica; 130 lives are lost.[2]

Alice Sanger becomes the first female staffer in the White House.[3]

January 11 – 1890 British Ultimatum: The United Kingdom demands Portugal withdraw its forces from the land between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia).

January 15 – Ballet The Sleeping Beauty, with music by Tchaikovsky, is premiered at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia.

January 25

The United Mine Workers of America is founded.

American journalist Nellie Bly completes her round-the-world journey in 72 days.

February 5 – The worldwide insurance and financial service brand Allianz is founded in Berlin, Germany.[4]

February 9 – The Weather Bureau is established within the United States Department of Agriculture.

February 11 – The city of Araucária is founded in Brazil.

February 17 (possible date) – The British steamship Duburg is wrecked in the South China Sea; 400 lives are lost.[2][5]

February 24 – Chicago is selected to host the Columbian Exposition.

March 1

The British steamship Quetia founders in the Torres Straits; 124 lives are lost.[2]

Léon Bourgeois succeeds Jean Antoine Ernest Constans, as French Minister of the Interior.

March 3 – The first American football game in Ohio State University history is played in Delaware, Ohio, against Ohio Wesleyan, with the Ohio State Buckeyes winning 20–14.

March 4: Forth Bridge opened

March 4 – The Forth Bridge, across the Firth of Forth in Scotland, is opened to rail traffic.

March 8 – North Dakota State University is founded in Fargo.

March 17 – The first railway in Transvaal, the Randtram, opens between Boksburg and Braamfontein in Johannesburg.[6][7]

March 20 – Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von Bismarck.

March 27

March 1890 middle Mississippi Valley tornado outbreak: 24 significant tornadoes are spawned by one system, killing at least 146 people.

Preston North End retain the English Football League Championship, winning their final game at Notts County

March 28 – Washington State University is founded in Pullman.

April–June

May 31: Cleveland Arcade.

June 1: Herman Hollerith.

April 2 – Kashihara Shrine, a landmark spot in Nara Prefecture, Japan, is officially built by Emperor Mutsuhito (Emperor of Meiji).[8]

April 14 – At the First International Conference of American States, in Washington D.C., The Commercial Bureau of the American Republics is founded.

May 1 – A coordinated series of mass rallies and one-day strikes is held throughout many cities and mining towns in Europe and North America, to demand an eight-hour workday.[9]

May 2 – President Benjamin Harrison signs the Oklahoma Organic Act, under which Oklahoma Territory is organized, a prerequisite for later statehood.

May 12 – The first ever official English County Championship cricket match begins in Bristol; Yorkshire beats Gloucestershire, by eight wickets.

May 20 – Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh moves to Auvers-sur-Oise on the edge of Paris, in the care of Dr Paul Gachet, where he will produce around seventy paintings in as many days.

May 31 – The five-story skylight Arcade opens in Cleveland, Ohio.

June 1 – The United States Census Bureau begins using Herman Hollerith's tabulating machine to tabulate census returns using punched card input, a landmark in the history of computing hardware. Hollerith's company eventually becomes IBM.

June 12 – In Lake Huron (Michigan), the wooden steamer Ryan is lost near Thunder Bay Island.[1]

June 16 – Royal Dutch Petroleum, predecessor of Royal Dutch Shell, the major worldwide energy production and sales company, is founded in the Netherlands to develop an oilfield in Pangkalan Brandan, North Sumatra.[10]

June 20 – The Picture of Dorian Gray (by Oscar Wilde) is published by Philadelphia-based Lippincott's Monthly Magazine (dated July).

June 27 – Canadian-born boxer George Dixon defeats the British bantamweight champion in London, giving him claim to be the first black world champion in any sport.[11]

July 29: Vincent van Gogh.

July–September

July 1

Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty: Britain cedes the Heligoland islands (in the German Bight) to Germany, in return for protectorates over Wituland and the Sultanate of Zanzibar (the islands of Pemba and Unguja) in east Africa.[12]

1890 Japanese general election: In the first general election for the House of Representatives of Japan, about 5% of the adult male population elect a lower house of the Diet of Japan, in accordance with the new Meiji Constitution of 1889.

The Ouija board is first released by Elijah Bond.

July 2 – The Sherman Antitrust Act and Sherman Silver Purchase Act become United States law.

July 3 – Idaho is admitted as the 43rd U.S. state.

July 10 – Wyoming is admitted as the 44th U.S. state.

July 13 – In Minnesota, storms result in the Sea Wing disaster on Lake Pepin, killing 98.

July 14 – Lime-green is first described as a color.[13]

July 26 – In Buenos Aires, the Revolution of the Park takes place, forcing President Juárez Celman's resignation.

July 27 – Death of Vincent van Gogh: van Gogh shoots himself, dying two days later.

August 6 – At Auburn Prison in New York, William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed in the electric chair.

August 20 – Treaty of London: Portugal and the United Kingdom define the borders of the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola.

August 23 – The BOVESPA stock exchange is founded in São Paulo, Brazil.

August – Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Alexander III meet at Narva.

September 6 – Dublin association football club Bohemian F.C. is founded in the Gate Lodge, Phoenix Park.

September 12 – Salisbury, Rhodesia, is founded.

September 19

The Turkish frigate Ertuğrul founders off Japan; 540 lives are lost.[2]

The University of North Texas is founded, as the Texas Normal College and Teacher Training Institute.[14]

September 25 — President Wilford Woodruff of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints issues the 1890 Manifesto ending the official practice of polygamy.

October–December

November: New Scotland Yard opens near the Big Ben clock tower.

December 29: Wounded Knee

October 9 – The first brief flight of Clément Ader's steam-powered fixed-wing aircraft Ader Éole takes place in Satory, France. It flies uncontrolled approximately 50 m (160 ft) at a height of 20 cm (7.9 in), the first take-off of a powered airplane solely under its own power.[15][16][17]

October 11 – In Washington, D.C., the Daughters of the American Revolution is founded.

October 12 – The Uddevalla Suffrage Association is founded in Sweden, with a formal founding event on November 2 a month later.

October 13

On Lake Huron, the schooner J.F. Warner is lost in Thunder Bay (Michigan).[1]

The Delta Chi fraternity is founded by 11 law students at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.

November 4 – The first deep level London Underground (Tube) Railway, the City and South London Railway, opens officially.

November 9 – British Royal Navy torpedo cruiser HMS Serpent (1887) is shipwrecked off Camariñas in Spain with the loss of 173 out of her crew of 176.[18]

November 21 – Edward King, Anglican bishop of Lincoln, is convicted of using ritualistic practices.[19]

November 23 – King William III of the Netherlands dies without a male heir, and his daughter Princess Wilhelmina becomes Queen, causing the end of the personal union of thrones with Luxembourg (which requires a male heir) so that Adolphe, Duke of Nassau becomes Grand Duke of Luxembourg.

November 29

The Meiji Constitution goes into effect in Japan, and its first Diet convenes.

At West Point, New York, the United States Navy defeats the United States Army 24–0 in the first Army–Navy Game of college football.

November – Scotland Yard, headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Service, moves to a building on London's Victoria Embankment, as New Scotland Yard.

December 15 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed by police on Standing Rock Indian Reservation.

December 27 – The British steamship Shanghai burns in the East China Sea off the coast of Anhui Province; 101 lives are lost.[20]

December 29 – Wounded Knee Massacre: At Wounded Knee, South Dakota, a Native American camp, the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment tries to disperse the non-violent "Ghost-Dance" which was promised to usher in a new era of power and freedom to Native Americans but is feared as a potential rallying tool for violent rebellion by some in the U.S. government. Shooting begins, and 153 Lakota Sioux and 25 troops are killed; about 150 flee the scene. This is the last tribe to be defeated and confined to a reservation as well as the beginning of the decline of both the American Indian Wars and the American frontier.

University of Denver University Hall, built in 1890

Date unknown

The folding carton box is invented by Robert Gair, a Brooklyn printer who developed production of paper-board boxes in 1879.

The United States city of Boise, Idaho, drills the first geothermal well.

Brown trout are introduced into the upper Firehole River, in Yellowstone National Park.

High School Cadets is written by John Philip Sousa.

William II of Prussia opposes Bismarck's attempt to renew the law outlawing the Social Democratic Party.

Blackwall Buildings, Whitechapel, noted philanthropic housing, is built in the East End of London.

English archaeologist Flinders Petrie excavates at Tell el-Hesi, Palestine (mistakenly identified as Tel Lachish), the first scientific excavation of an archaeological site in the Holy Land, during which he discovers how tells are formed.

American geostrategist Alfred Thayer Mahan publishes his influential book The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783.

Francis Galton announces a statistical demonstration of the uniqueness and classifiability of individual human fingerprints.[21]

Alfred Tucker becomes Anglican Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa.[22]

The Ohio Northern University Marching Band is founded as a part of the military department. Becoming known as the “Star of Northwest Ohio”, they will perform regularly each football season and travel across the world through their sponsoring university.[23]

Japanese tractor and iron pipe brand, Kubota founded in Osaka, Japan.[24]

Emerson Electric, an American electronics industry giant, is founded in Missouri.[25]

Births

January

Kurt Tucholsky

Néstor Guillén

January 1 – Anton Melik, Slovenian geographer (d. 1966)

January 2 – Madoline Thomas, Welsh actress (d. 1989)

January 4

Augustus Agar, British commodore (d. 1968)

Victor Lustig, Bohemian-born con artist (d. 1947)

January 5 – Sarah Aaronsohn, member of the Jewish spy ring Nili (d. 1917)

January 8 – Taixu, Chinese Buddhist activist (d. 1947)

January 9

Kurt Tucholsky, German-born journalist and satirist (d. 1935)

Karel Čapek, Czech writer (d. 1938)

January 11 – Oswald de Andrade, Brazilian Modernist writer (d.1954)

January 13 – Jüri Uluots, 8th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1945)

January 19 – Élise Rivet, French Roman Catholic nun and war heroine (d. 1945)

January 20

Barbu Alinescu, Romanian general (d. 1952)

Boris Kozo-Polyansky, Russian botanist and evolutionary biologist (d. 1957)

January 21 – Wesley Englehorn, American football player (d. 1993)

January 22 – Fred M. Vinson, Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1953)

January 28

Néstor Guillén , Bolivian politician, 40th President of Bolivia (d. 1966)

Robert Franklin Stroud, Birdman of Alcatraz (d. 1963)

January 30 – Bronisław Hager, Polish activist and public health pioneer (d. 1969)[26]

February

February 9 – Carolina Nabuco, Brazilian writer and translator (d. 1981)

February 10 – Boris Pasternak, Russian writer (Doctor Zhivago), Nobel Prize laureate (declined) (d. 1960)

February 14 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh painter (d. 1956)

February 15 – Matome Ugaki, Japanese admiral (d. 1945)

February 16 – Francesco de Pinedo, Italian aviator (d. 1933)

February 17

Ioan Arhip, Romanian general (d. 1980)

Ronald Fisher, English statistician and geneticist (d. 1962)

February 18

Edward Arnold, American actor (d. 1956)

Adolphe Menjou, American actor (d. 1963)

February 24 – Marjorie Main, American actress (d. 1975)

February 25

Dame Myra Hess, English pianist (d. 1965)

Kiyohide Shima, Japanese admiral (d. 1973)

February 27

Freddie Keppard, American jazz musician (d. 1933)

Art Smith, American pilot (d. 1926)

March

Vyacheslav Molotov

Nancy Elizabeth Prophet

Eugeniusz Baziak

March 1 – Theresa Bernstein, Polish-born American artist and writer (d. 2002)

March 4 – Norman Bethune, Canadian doctor and humanitarian (d. 1939)

March 8 – Eugeniusz Baziak, Polish Roman Catholic archbishop (d. 1962)

March 9

(new style) Vyacheslav Molotov, Soviet politician (d. 1986)

Rupert Balfe, Australian rules footballer (d. 1915)

March 11 – Vannevar Bush, American engineer, inventor and politician (d. 1960)

March 19 – Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, African-American artist known for her sculpture (d. 1960)

March 20

Beniamino Gigli, Italian tenor (d. 1957)

Fania Marinoff, Russian born American actress (d. 1971)

Lauritz Melchior, Danish-American tenor (d. 1973)

March 26 – Aaron S. "Tip" Merrill, American admiral (d. 1961)

March 28 – Paul Whiteman, American bandleader (d. 1967)

March 31 – William Lawrence Bragg, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)

April

April 6 – Anthony Fokker, Dutch aircraft manufacturer (d. 1939)

April 7

Paul Berth, Danish amateur footballer (d. 1969)

Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American conservationist and writer (d. 1998)

Harry W. Hill, American admiral (d. 1971)

April 13

Frank Murphy, American politician and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1949)

Dadasaheb Torne, Indian filmmaker (d. 1960)

April 11 – Rachele Mussolini, Italian, wife of Benito Mussolini (d. 1979)

April 15 – Percy Shaw, British inventor (d. 1976)

April 16

Fred Root, English cricketer (d. 1954)

Vernon Sturdee, Australian general (d. 1966)

April 17 – Victor Chapman, French-American fighter pilot (d. 1916)

April 18 – Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (d.1958)

April 20

Maurice Duplessis, premier of Quebec (d. 1959)

Adolf Schärf, President of Austria (d. 1965)

April 21 – Michitaro Tozuka, Japanese admiral (d. 1966)

April 24 – Masatane Kanda, Japanese general (d. 1983)

April 26 – Edgar Kennedy, American comedic actor (d. 1948)

April 29 – Daisy Fellowes, French society figure, writer and heiress (d. 1962)

April 30 – Géza Lakatos, 36th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1967)

May

Clelia Lollini

Ho Chi Minh

May 1

Clelia Lollini, Italian physician (d. 1963)

Laurence Wild, 1913 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American, head coach for the Navy Midshipmen men's basketball and 30th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1971)

May 4 – Franklin Carmichael, Canadian landscape painter and graphic designer (d. 1945)

May 7 – George Archainbaud, French film director (d. 1959)

May 10 – Alfred Jodl, German general (d. 1946)

May 11 – Woodall Rodgers, mayor of Dallas, Texas (d. 1961)

May 15 – Katherine Anne Porter, American author (d. 1980)

May 19 – Ho Chi Minh, Prime minister/President of North Vietnam (d. 1969)

May 22 – Simion Coman, Romanian general (d. 1971)

May 23 – Herbert Marshall, English actor (d. 1966)

June

Stan Laurel

June 1 – Frank Morgan, American actor (d. 1949)

June 6

Ted Lewis, American jazz musician and entertainer (d. 1971)

Naomasa Sakonju, Japanese admiral and war criminal (d. 1948)

June 10 – William A. Seiter, American film director (d. 1964)

June 11 – Béla Miklós, 38th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1948)

June 12 – Junius Matthews, American actor (d. 1978)

June 16 – Stan Laurel, English-born actor (d. 1965)

June 17 – Hatazō Adachi, Japanese general (d. 1947)

June 21 – Lewis H. Brereton, American aviation pioneer and air force general (d. 1967)

June 23 – Salvatore Papaccio, Italian tenor (d. 1977)

June 25 – Charlotte Greenwood, American actress (d. 1977)

June 26

Oscar C. Badger II, American admiral (d. 1958)

Jeanne Eagels, American actress (d. 1929)

June 28 – William H. P. Blandy, American admiral (d. 1954)

June 29

Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper, Dutch supercentenarian (d. 2005)

Pietro Montana, Italian-American sculptor, painter and teacher (d. 1978)

June 30

Gertrude McCoy, American actress (d. 1967)

Paul Boffa, 5th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 1962)

July

Frank Forde

Rose Kennedy

P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri

July 9 – Joseph-Alphida Crête, Canadian politician (d. 1964)

July 10 – Leo Rush, Australian rules footballer (d. 1983)

July 11 – Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder, British air force air marshal (d. 1967)

July 16 – Carlos Carmelo Vasconcellos Motta, Brazilian cardinal (d. 1982)

July 18 – Frank Forde, 15th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1983)

July 19 – George II of Greece, King of Greece (d. 1947)

July 20 – Verna Felton, American character actress (d. 1966)

July 22 – Rose Kennedy, American philanthropist and matriarch of the Kennedy family (d. 1995)

July 26

Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral and Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1942)

Seiichi Itō, Japanese admiral (d. 1945)

July 29 – P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, Sanskrit scholar. First to translate Tolkāppiyam into English (d. 1978)

August

H. P. Lovecraft

August 2 – Marin Sais, American film actress (d. 1971)

August 3 – Konstantin Melnikov, Russian avant-garde architect (d. 1974)

August 4 – Erich Weinert, German writer and political activist (d. 1953)

August 5 – Erich Kleiber, Austrian conductor (d. 1956)

August 10

Angus L. Macdonald, Nova Scotia Premier (d. 1954)

Bechara El Khoury, 2-Time Prime Minister and 2-Time President of Lebanon (d. 1964)

August 13 – Lydia Zvereva, first Russian woman to earn a pilot's license (d. 1916)

August 15

Jacques Ibert, French composer (d. 1962)

Elizabeth Bolden, American supercentenarian, last surviving person born in 1890 (d. 2006)

August 18 – Walther Funk, German politician (d. 1960)

August 19 – Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern, Queen consort of Portugal in exile (d. 1966)

August 20 – H. P. Lovecraft, American writer (d. 1937)

August 22

Hans-Joachim Buddecke, German World War I fighter pilot and ace (d. 1918)

Cecil Kellaway, South African character actor (d. 1973)

Henry "Son" Sims, American Delta blues fiddler and songwriter (d. 1958)

August 24 – Duke Kahanamoku, American swimmer (d. 1968)

September

Colonel Sanders

Agatha Christie

September 8 – Dorothy Price, Irish physician (d. 1954)

September 9

Hilda Abbott, wife of the administrator of the Northern Territory (d. 1984)

Colonel Harland Sanders, founder of KFC (d. 1980)

September 10

Elsa Schiaparelli, French couturiere (d. 1973)

Sir Mortimer Wheeler, British archaeologist (d. 1976)

September 15

Agatha Christie, English writer (d. 1976)[27]

Frank Martin, Swiss composer (d. 1974)

September 20

Jelly Roll Morton, American jazz pianist, composer and bandleader (d. 1941)

Rachel Bluwstein, Israeli poet (d. 1931)

September 21 – Max Immelmann, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1916)

September 23

Kakuji Kakuta, Japanese admiral (d. 1944)

Friedrich Paulus, German field marshal (d. 1957)

September 24 – A. P. Herbert, English humorist, novelist, playwright and law reform activist (d. 1971)

October

Stanley Holloway

Groucho Marx

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Charles de Gaulle

Fritz Lang

Hermann Joseph Muller

Konstantinos Georgakopoulos

October 1

Katherine Corri Harris, American socialite and actress, first wife of John Barrymore (d. 1927)

Stanley Holloway, English actor (d. 1982)

Alice Joyce, American silent film actress (d. 1955)

Blanche Oelrichs, American poet, second wife of John Barrymore (d. 1950)

October 2 – Groucho Marx, American comedian (d. 1977)

October 3 – Emilio Portes Gil, Mexican teacher, journalist, lawyer and substitute President of Mexico, 1928–1930 (d. 1978)[28]

October 6 – Jack Rockwell, Mexican-American actor (d. 1947)

October 8

Henrich Focke, German aviation pioneer (d. 1979)

Eddie Rickenbacker, race car driver and American World War I fighter pilot (d. 1973)

October 9 – Aimee Semple McPherson, Canadian-American Pentecostal Evangelist (d. 1944)

October 13 – Conrad Richter, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1968)

October 14 – Dwight D. Eisenhower, US general and 34th President of the United States (d. 1969)

October 16

Michael Collins, Irish patriot (d. 1922)

Paul Strand, American photographer (d. 1976)

October 17 – Roy Kilner, English cricketer (d. 1928)

October 20 – Sherman Minton, American politician and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1965)

October 23 – Abdul Hamid Karami, 16th Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1950)

October 25 – Floyd Bennett, American aviator and explorer (d. 1928)

October 26 – John Aae, Norwegian politician (d. 1968)

October 29 – Hans-Valentin Hube, German army general (d. 1944)

November

Saadi Al Munla

Tomitarō Horii

Elpidio Quirino

Charles De Gaulle

El Lissitzky

November 4 – Saadi Al Munla, 17th Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1975)

November 7

Tomitarō Horii, Japanese general (d. 1942)

Jan Matulka, American painter (d. 1972)

November 8 – Conrad Weygand, German chemist (d. 1945)

November 9 – Grigory Kulik, Soviet military officer, Marshal of the Soviet Union (d. 1950)

November 16

George Seldes, American investigative journalist (d. 1995)

Elpidio Quirino, 6th President of the Philippines (d. 1956)

November 20 – Leon Cadore, American baseball pitcher (d. 1968)

November 22 – Charles de Gaulle, President of France (d. 1970)

November 23 – El Lissitzky, Russian artist and architect (d. 1941)

December

December 5

David Bomberg, English painter (d. 1957)

Fritz Lang, Austrian-born film director, screenwriter and actor (d. 1976)

December 6 – Dion Fortune, British occultist (d. 1946)

December 8 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech composer (d. 1959)

December 10

László Bárdossy, 33rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1946)

Henry Louis Larsen, American Marine Corps General; Governor of American Samoa and Governor of Guam (d. 1962)

December 11 – Carlos Gardel, Argentine tango singer (d. 1935)

December 12 – Charles Basil Price, Canadian soldier and politician (d. 1975)

December 17 – Prince Joachim of Prussia (suicide 1920)

December 20 – Jaroslav Heyrovský, Czech chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)

December 21 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1967)

December 25 – Robert Ripley, American collector of odd facts (d. 1949)

December 26

Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and professor, 152nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973)

Uncle Charlie Osborne, Appalachian fiddler (d. 1992)

December 30

Lanoe Hawker, British fighter pilot (d. 1916)

Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, 47th President of Mexico (d. 1973)

Date unknown

Ștefan Balaban, Romanian general (d. 1962)

Sava Caracaș, Romanian general (d. 1945)

Hatı Çırpan, Turkish politician (d. 1956)

Deaths

January–June

King Amadeus I of Spain

Gyula Andrássy

Joseph Merrick

January 2 – Julián Gayarre, Spanish opera singer (b. 1844)

January 7 – Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Empress Consort of William I, German Emperor (b. 1811)

January 18 – King Amadeo I of Spain (b. 1845)

February 18 – Gyula Andrássy, Hungarian statesman, 4th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1823)

February 22

John Jacob Astor III, American businessman (b. 1822)

Carl Heinrich Bloch, Danish painter (b. 1834)

January 23 – Emily Jane Pfeiffer, Welsh poet and philanthropist (b. 1827)

March 3 – Innocenzo da Berzo, Italian Capuchin friar and blessed (b. 1844)

March 7 – Karl Rudolf Friedenthal, Prussian statesman (b. 1827)

March 9 – Sir Mangaldas Nathubhoy, Indian politician (b. 1832)

March 16 – Princess Zorka of Montenegro (b. 1864)

March 23 – Mary Jane Katzmann, Canadian historian (b. 1828)

April 1

David Wilber, American politician (b. 1820)

Alexander Mozhaysky, Russian aeronautical pioneer (b. 1825)

April 11

David de Jahacob Lopez Cardozo, Dutch Talmudist (b. 1808)

Joseph Merrick (The Elephant Man), British oddity (b. 1862)

April 18 – Paweł Bryliński, Polish sculptor (b. 1814)[29]

April 19 – James Pollock, American politician (b. 1810)

May 22 – Eduard von Fransecky, Prussian general (b. 1807)

June 1 – Camilo Castelo Branco, Portuguese writer (b. 1825)

June 24 – Subba Row, Hindu theosophist (b. 1856)

June 30 – Samuel Parkman Tuckerman, American composer (b. 1819)

July–December

Vincent van Gogh

Carlo Collodi

John Boyle O'Reilly

Richard Francis Burton

William III of the Netherlands

Heinrich Schliemann

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